VIETNAM- the war and its impact on American population

I The origins of the war

The 1945 Hiroshima bomb deeply impressed the Americans and the whole world: it was a proof of their power used to defend “ the free world.” The Americans believed in their mission when trying to contain communism throughout the world. South-East Asia was a danger spot after the victory of communists in China in 1949 and after the Korean war in which American troops had been involved from 1950 to 1951.

Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia had been French colonies. In 1946, a war of independence erupted in Vietnam. After its defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, France had to recognize the independence of those countries : the Geneva Agreements agreed to divide Vietnam into two parts: - the communist-based Republic of North Vietnam ( with President Ho Chi Minh) and – the Western-oriented Republic of South Vietnam. But the Americans feared the reunification of the two Vietnams under communist control. Indeed, the situation rapidly spun out of control: popular discontent prevailed in South Vietnam because of President Diem’s corrupt, authoritarian regime, and the countryside was an ideal breeding ground for a guerilla force which started organizing a rebellion with the help of North Vietnam and its communist allies..

II The Vietnam War

The American involvement in Vietnam lasted from 1961 to 1973 . It went through several phases:

a- Aid under Kennedy

President Kennedy sent an advisory mission to South Vietnam in 1961 to help fight against the Viet-cong guerillas, backed by North Vietnam. ( They were also called “VC” or “the National Liberation Front”)

The US military resorted to different strategies: economic aid to the country, pacification programmes, covert political intervention ( to oust President Diem who was eventually overthrown and killed in Nov.1963). Nevertheless, the US became more involved as China, the USSR and North Vietnam supplied arms to the guerilla forces.

b- Escalation under Johnson

President Johnson’s policy was to intensify the war so as to force the Vietcong to the bargaining table. North Vietnam was massively bombed from 1965 to 1968. American involvement was to reach a peak of 536,000 troops in 1968. But the most sophisticated weaponry in the world( fighter-bombers, helicopters, napalm and defolients) did not seem to be able to quash the uprising of guerillas. Indeed, the insurgents could rely on a constant flow of new troops and equipment from their communist allies. Besides, they were a very elusive enemy in a type of war US soldiers were not used to fighting ( a guerilla war in a jungle).

1968 was to be a turning point from both a military and a psychological point of view. The Vietcong, who were said to have been contained, took advantage of the Têt holiday to mount a full-scale offensive which proved how efficient and coordinated they could be. Americans were shocked, as the death toll kept rising and each new funeral proved the futility of the war effort.

Vietnam actually caused Johnson’s downfall.

c- Withdrawal under Nixon

According to Nixon, the key to victory in Vietnam was a deeper involvement of the Vietnamese themselves in their own conflict, that is why he advocated a “ vietnamization policy”, whose direct consequence was a gradual withdrawal of US troops. When Nixon was elected in Nov.1968, US troops in Vietnam had dropped to 24,200. Peace talks, which had been under way in Paris since 1968, reached agreements and a ceasefire was proclaimed in 1973. Two years later, the South collapsed and Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City.

The picture of the last Americans leaving from the roof of the US Embassy by helicopter was to remain engraved in the American psyche. Moreover, 135,000 South Vietnamese were eventually admitted into the US after the fall of Saigon.

d- the war costs

The war costs were dual:

-the loss in human lives was enormous: approximately 58,000 Americans and 1,4 million Vietnamese died. The civilians suffered a lot since the country was devastated ( 372,000 tons of napalm were used in 10 years).

-an idealistic commitment ( a fight for freedom against communism, a totalitarian system) had turned into a nightmare. The US had suffered a military setback, the first ever, and American foreign policy would keep a low profile in the next decade.

III The Vietnam war on the home front

A- An unpopular war

It was the first time a war had been covered by the media. As Americans watched TV, their faith in the validity of the war was shattered. Their idealism also died when when they saw their “boys” massacre innocent Vietnamese villagers. The brutalities of the corrupt South Vietnam regime further discredited the US participation in the war.

B- the antiwar protest

It was mainly led by left-wing students and the young in general since they were the ones likely to be drafted into the army. Millions of Americans demonstrated against the war, many tried to dodge the draft, some even paid poor people to go in their place. Students repeated: “ Hell, no, we won’t go:” or “Make love, not war”.

Bob Dylan, Joan Baez and others voiced their rebellion in Rock’n Roll and Folk music.

C- The social and political costs

-The war was waged at the expense of social programs and the war on poverty. People resented this lack of funds at a time when coloured minorities and underprivileged groups demanded more help from the government.

-The way politicians conducted the war destroyed the people’s confidence in government and authority. Johnson had not kept his promises of peace, nor Nixon his promises of law and order. The Nixon administration in office felt besieged by antiwar protest. In the end Nixon resigned, following the Watergate scandal, in August 1974.

IV The aftermath of the war

A- Collective amnesia

Problems of inflation, unemployment and the energy crisis emerged as the central issues of the late 70’s and the early 80’s. People were embarrassed to talk about the war and war veterans were ignored, or scorned or even called “baby killers” when they came back home. Many had to be hospitalized because they suffered from Post Traumatic Syndrome and found it hard to adjust to civilian life, insomuch as their sacrifice was never acknowledged ( or belatedly so). They were portrayed in films such as Taxi Driver or Apocalypse Now as murderous, psychotic, drug-wasted losers.

Many draft-dodgers also felt guilty about those who had served and those who had died in Vietnam.

The Vietnam Syndrome was on everybody’s minds: America would avoid any foreign involvement that could lead a commitment of American troops into another quagmire ( bourbier).

B- An open wound: the “ Missing – in – Action” (MIAs)

About 2,400 US soldiers are still reported missing in Vietnam and some claim they may still be held captive in Vietnam, China or far east Russia. Some Hollywood movies, starring Sylvester Stallone ( Rambo II) or Chuck Norris ( Commando) , capitalized on such an emotional theme.

C- A restored self-image

The dedication of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in 1983 , which was built by private contributions, marked the emotional climax of a cathartic process , when a nation could at last come to terms with its past. This long overdue recognition was a concrete symbol of reconciliation with the past . It is inscribed with the names of the 58,022 soldiers who died.

From that time onwards, the films about the Vietnam War started to portray super-heroes ( Rambo) , but also more true-to-life heroes in films such as Platoon, where there is no clear line drawn between the “goodies” and the “baddies”, and where the fighting man’s confusion, fears and dilemmas are highlighted.